Exploitation Among Migrant Labour

Exploitation Among Migrant Labour CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION All human beings, irrespective of race, creed or sex, have the right to pursue both their material well-being and their spiritual development in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic security and equal opportunity. -1944 The Declaration of Philadelphia, ILO[1] Am I been exploited, are a teacher been exploited, are a doctor been exploited, or else an insurance sales man been exploited? It seems to be the question of the day. In todays world there are so many things occurring around and in front of us, thereby the word exploitation is been a crucial topic to be looked into depth. Thus, the initial explanation that tends to be exposed in this project paper is that exploitation is a crucial thing that is going through even after the onset of the Modern world system. The term exploitation in this paper will generally draw on the exploitation among migrant labour that answers the question above. They are really been exploited in the world system that is constantly under the umbrella of capitalism. The big trouble of the world today is that market forces are overwhelming the state institutions and this happens when the governments in the rich countries are being forced to scrap their welfare state services. Meanwhile in the poor countries forces to abandon populist measures introduced to uphold national independence and protect the poors. In illustrating this paper, the well-known world system theory will be a theoretical framework basically in explaining the exploitation among migrant labour.The opening of the 21st century has witnessed continuing controversies over how nation states should react to potential migrant flows and the seeming inability of migrants to integrate into the receiving state. Whether migrants always benefit the population that is expected to receive them is quite another matter, however. The only clear beneficiary of migration is the migrant. Whether their movement benefits the people in the country of destination all depends on circumstances. That is why borders cannot be fully opened, just as in peacetime they cannot be fully closed. [2] Indeed, the investment in developing countries made by developed countries takes full use of the cheap labour. Meanwhile the migrant labours productivity is very comparable to local low waged workers. Simultaneously, open border is urged as a parallel to free trade, as though people were goods. But goods do not go where they are unwanted, goods have no rights or feelings, goods do not reproduce or vote, goods can be sent back or scrapped when no longer needed. Immigration concerns people, not objects, and consequently political and social importance is potentially much greater than any economic effect it may have. All areas of human activity have safeguards and regulations because markets are imperfect. It would be a very harsh world without them. Absolutely free movement of people is no more possible then the absolute free trade. Trade is never free, and free trade always depends on negotiated conditions. It seems that the border is symbolising a free trade, but the sad thing is that international system and international law itself is against international labour mobility especially as in the case of the free movement of migrant labour in question. Subsequently, the national borders are precisely what are hurled faced by migrants in Europe and beyond. Ranging from temporary seasonal workers who are exploited in the fields of Andalusia in Spain; to legal migrants who live and work every day in Eurospace; undocumented migrants working in irregular jobs in Italy or the UK, in factories or in the home, as many women do; tolerated refugees living in an isolated junglecamp in Northern-Germany; migrants detained in a camp in Greece or Poland, or even in front of the externalized EU-borders in Morocco or Ukraine. They all are crossing and forcing the boundaries living inside and struggling against the same monster which is the border control. Even as a strong regional economic power, due to its extensive reserves of oil and gas, Kazakhstan have been identified by numerous cases of violations of the rights of migrant workers, especially those working in the agriculture and construction industries. Migrants without regular status and wit hout contracts are particularly vulnerable to exploitation: long working hours, lack of rest days, confiscation of passports, non-payment of salaries and sale of migrant workers from one employer to another. In both Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, corruption within the police, customs, and border officials places migrants at constant risk of extortion and deportation. Such violations are generally committed with complete immunity.[3] Consciously, todays migrants labour, men and women alike, face various challenges including poor conditions of work and harsh working environments, racism, sexism and labour market discrimination. In addition, women and men migrants frequently sacrifice decent living conditions, health care, nutrition and education. Women migrant workers concentration in private homes and other unregulated venues rather than public workplaces can represent more vulnerability in terms of discrimination on gender, racial, ethnic, occupational and nationality grounds. They certainly could find themselves victims of exploitation, hazardous work conditions and psychological, physical and sexual abuse. In occupations such as domestic work, women migrant workers often find themselves excluded from the right to family reunification. Large numbers of them can also often find themselves excluded from legal employment when arriving as spouses of temporary workers. It is widely recognized that the most painful s ocial cost of migration is the separation of children from their parents, especially when it is the mother that has migrated. Simultaneously, all over the world capitalist exploitation is unimaginable without the global differences, constructed through filters and zones, the hierarchies and inequality, and through the external as well as the internal borders. Illegalisation and deportations on one hand, selective inclusion and recruitment of migrant workforce on the other hand, are two sides of the same coin: migration management for a global apartheid regime, whose most precarious conditions of exploitation are based on the production of hierarchies in terms of rights and on racist discrimination. Low wage countries in the south are used to undercut wages through relocation of production, low wage sectors in the north are targeting young migrant workers: trying to keep them obedient by blackmailing them, as their right of residence is linked to their jobs. It surely makes sense that migrant labour is forced to live in precarious hell, and they still struggles and finds a no way out to improve conditions tr aditionally, or even voice demands for visibility, rights and citizenship. Historically, in the last twenty years, World System theory has become one of the common structures used by historians and also the social scientists to account for the political economy of complex societies. The world system theory thus emphasizes the role of long distance exchange dominated by highly centralized core areas as the main factor explaining both the organization of less complex neighbouring, institutions, and routes of developmental change. The classic and defining example of a world system is the extension of European colonial control over Africa and the Americas from the sixteenth century to the present. But now, the system is well known as capitalist world system under which capitalism acting as a dominator in the class system divided by core and periphery in which situation that the core dominates the periphery. [4] Ideas of Adam Smith, Ricardo, Karl Marx have significantly contribute to the development of the world system theory. Marxism does influence popular scholar like Immanuel Wallerstein who has analysis the modern world system that comprises core, periphery and also the semi-periphery.Wallerstein have stated that the relations between the three stages (core, periphery, semi-periphery) are interconnected with each other and there is an unequal dependencies among the three stage.[5] Thus, the unequal or unbalanced dependencies introduces another significance of stimuli in migrant labour as will be shown in the Malaysian case.. So, following from the historical development, the concept of nationality emerged to link citizens formally to the state. Simultaneously, the presences of international migration come to be defined as the movement of persons that is non-nationals or foreigner, across national borders for purposes other than travel or short-term residence. [6] Significantly, globalization that drives as a force to modern world system has become more crucial since 1990s mainly after the collapse of Soviet Union. In a matter of fact, the trend of globalization has significantly widened the scope of free market economy albeit movement of capital and this has sufficiently created the income gap between developed countries and developing countries. Marauding capitalism in other words is farther reshaping as the free market system which are been dominated by the core or developed countries. Thus, with the wide economic disparity, labour market imbalances between the countries and the undeveloped labour migration regimes have all inevitably contributed to cross-border labour movement, especially immigrant labour.[7] Significantly, it is obvious that there is an unbalanced development going on mainly because of the surplus of production that is unevenly dispersed. It can be stressed and pointed out that the migrant labour that has been a subject of exploitation since the emergence of capitalism and more critically known as world capitalist system. In capitalism, workers sell labour, so labour is a commodity as well that is bought and sold and has exchange value. It is exactly proven that all profit that gain by capitalism comes from the labours. Meanwhile, the flow and movement of workers to other countries are according to the labour market that is being caught under the power of capitalism. In this matter, migrant labour is the main momentum to the capitalist mainly to increase their capacity. Migrant labour which are largely from Asian countries such as Indonesia, Thailand, Vietnam and Philippines move to other countries due to the flow of the labour market system.[8] Many migrant labour enter illegally or on various short-term pretexts seeking to stay and improve their position by any available means. And even the economic benefits of labour migration, once uncritically acclaimed, are less clear than they were and may well in some cases be negative when all costs are considered. Too easy an access to migrant labour can create distortion and dependency in an economy. Any large modern society which finds that it in some way needs constant flows of immigrants, over a long time, is suffering from this labour problem with its society or labour market or economy which it ought to rectify by reforming itself, not depending on the rest of the world. (Borjas 1996, Wardensjo 1999) In no other area of public policy are we urged to believe without doubting whatever business has revealed about its supposed labour needs, and to give it all it wants. Business interests however are short-term. Easy immediate access to labour will always be preferred to the costs of training and capital investment for the longer term. According to fundamental economic theory, uncontrolled migration is always beneficial because labour is then enabled to flow from countries with abundant cheap labour and little capital to high wage areas where labour is scarce but capital abundant. Obviously, free migration is expected to equalise the ratio of capital to labour everywhere, until equilibrium is reached where wages have equalised and capital efficiency is maximised. Net migration then comes to an end. However these simple assumptions are seldom satisfied. Poor counties with population to spare greatly outweigh destination countries. Compared with the latter, their populations are effectively infinitely large. The equalization of wages expected from this process means lower wages in the receiving countries. Fundamental political theory and practice tells us the wage reductions so welcome to economists and employers are distinctly unattractive to employees and electorates. Most migrants do not bring capital with them, in addition many move forreasons little connected with the labour market. So instead, the supporters of migration now spend much effort assuring us that the theoretically desirable macro-economic deflationary consequences of migration cannot actually arise, but that all can benefit from higher incomes. The latter argument is looking increasingly messy as evidence mounts that the effect is divisive. Previous immigrants, and the poorer sections of society,suffer adverse consequences while the middle class may enjoy cheaper services from migrant labour.[9] In a matter of fact, the segmented labour market provides another escape route that some jobs will not be done by locals and must be done by immigrants. However one of the reasons why locals will find some jobs unattractive is because it is mostly immigrants who perform them. If employers can pay immigrant, not in local wages, they thereby become dependent on perpetual immigrant labour, in some cases illegal. The concept of segmented labour markets finds little realistic support on a large scale. Where such segmented markets do exist they tend to be a function of excessively low wages, insufficient capitalisation of the function in question or excessive levels of employment protection in the regular economy running hand in hand with illegal migrant for employment. The suggestion that some unattractive jobs must in future be done by foreigners implies the weed of a permanent ethnically distinct underclass.[10] More strategically, migration changes economies and creates dependence on further migration. It allows obsolete low-wage, low-productivity enterprises to continue in poor conditions, which otherwise would have to raise the wages of their workers, introduce more capital intensive processes or export the function to the countries where it could be performed more cheaply for everyones benefit. International migration refers to the push and pull movements of populations across national frontiers that are the circulation patterns of persons in which who emigrate (exit) and immigrate (enter). Simultaneously, one of the most striking changes in the character of international labour migration in Southeast Asia especially in Malaysia during the second half of the twentieth century has been the great increase in the scale, complexity, and significance of Indonesian labour migration. Malaysia had selectively practised open borders even after gaining Independence in 1957, and irregular migration revealed itself as a problem only in the early eighties when the economy began to slow down. In the first half of the twentieth century, there are plenty of migrant labours that comprised a large number and were welcomed both as settlers and temporary indentured workers. Thus, it has been stated that the foreign workers come from twelve countries in the region that is from the ASEAN countries and neighbouring countries supplying a much needed workforce in Malaysias agricultural, construction, manufacturing and services sectors.[11] Of the 1,8 million persons registered in the statistics by the Ministry of Home Affairs, the largest number of migrants come from Indonesia (1,2 million) and works mainly in the plantation sector (381,582 of them) followed by Nepali (192,332 persons registered) mostly represented in the manufacturing industry (159,990). According to the figures, Indian workers (134946) are legally employed in the same sector (34685) but also in the services (61,273) and in the plantations (27,759). Other sending countries include Burma (88,573), Vietnam (81,194), Bangladesh (55,389), Philippines (21,694), Pakistan (13,296), Cambodia (5,832),Thailand (5,753), Sri Lanka (3,050) and China (1,295).[12] Based on official figures, the foreign working force seems to be constantly growing. However, no consistent national immigration policy has been decided by the authorities. There is a total absence of direction between the various national Ministries involved in the management of migrant workers. The absence of a written immigration policy or immigration quotas also reflects the ad hoc approach of the government; the policy in this field seems mainly reactive. Various members of civil society confirmed that the sustainability of the Malaysian economy is deeply related to this illegal immigration. Malaysia, as with many countries of immigration, relies on foreign workers for the 3D jobs (Dirty, Dangerous and Difficult), often avoidedrejected by the Malaysian nationals. From the late 1950s to the 1960s, undocumented migrants, predominantly from Indonesia, were silently welcomed as they belonged to the same racial stock and could be easily assimilated and integrated into the Malay community. This political motivation was later followed by economic necessities. In the 1970s, rapid development under the New Economic Policy (NEP) allowed for the absorption of a new wave of migrants, and by 1984, there was an estimated half a million migrant population in the country, all of whom were undocumented. The unofficial estimates were much higher at around one million.[13] Their movement to Malaysia was also unrestricted. Since the 1980s, economic, social, and demographic changes in the region, consistent with accelerated globalisation, have deeply affected Indonesian labour migration to Malaysia. The destinations of Indonesian labour migrants currently overlap national boundaries to a far greater extent than before, and many more Indonesians have acquired the ability to move as free workers. Despite the legal and administrative channels to employment in Malaysia, irregular migrants take high risks to be in irregular status for a variety of reasons. Unlike the employment of highly-skilled labour, legal recruitment of low-skilled labour involves several intermediaries in the sending and receiving countries to process their movement, raising their transactions costs of migration. In contrast, illegal employment is less time-consuming and uncooperative, and cheaper for both employers and migrants. In another view, it is obviously can be stated that the most migrant labour came to Malaysia as a legal workers, but after some time, the workers will be cheated by their agents or their employers, and finally the legal or documented workers will be become illegal. Besides that, policies also tie foreign workers in legal status to a particular employer and location. Hence, foreign workers who prefer greater freedom and flexibility, and seek more opportunities to earn higher income resort to irregular migration. On the supply side, there is a ready secondary job market for irregular migrants. Despite severe sanctions against employers hiring irregular migrants, they continue to hire irregular migrants since they are cheaper and can be hired for shorter periods than warranted by the work permit. In addition, employers caught hiring irregular migrants are rarely punished, giving the impression that they are immune to the tough laws. Irregular migrants are likely to work in the informal sectors of the economy or in the remote parts of the country. They are also more open to exploitative working conditions and resort to crime when unemployed. They live in horrible housing conditions and are a source of highly contagious diseases. As far as concerned, estimates of irregular migrant workers varied from as low as one million to as high as two million in the mid-1990s, depending on whether it is official or unofficial. The high incidence of irregular migration has been curbed to some extent through a combination of measures that include tough immigration and labour laws that penalize migrants as well as those hiring, harbouring or trafficking in irregular migrants, strict border and internal controls, regularization and amnesty programmes and bilateral engagement with host countries. Apprehended irregular migrants are either prosecuted and sentenced to imprisonment or placed in detention centres before being deported. The Malaysian government faces enormous problems in repatriating irregular migrants due to legal barriers and lack of administrative resources. In overall, the goal of this project paper is to investigate the push and pull factors that have given a deep impact on labour exploitation, as in the case of Malaysia and Indonesia labour movement. Thus, Wallersteins concept of World System Theory will be used as a theoretical framework in this project. Significantly, Wallersteins concept did explain the exploitation of core on periphery, but this project paper tend to add his concept by emphasizing that in current context, labour exploitation did occur among the peripheries/ semi peripheries especially in the case between Malaysia and Indonesia. This paper also will briefly explain the level of exploitation among migrant labour in various sectors in Malaysia. PROBLEM STATEMENT This paper is mainly written to explain the relevance of Wallersteins concept of labour exploitation in current context. Thus, this paper illustrates the current situation of migrant labour in contemporary world system where they are being the subject of exploitation.Basically, in current situation, a large number of migrant laboursare going through a stage of exploitation. For instance, we can look at what is going on in Florida, where thousands of migrant farmworkers are being abused and can be regarded as modern slavery. Meanwhile, if we look at Dubai now, thousands of migrant construction workers mainly from South Asia are being exploited. More precisely, this paper mainly focuses on the level of exploitation among the Indonesia migrant labour in Malaysia in a variety of sectors especially plantation, construction, and the domestics. Beside, this paper will add to Wallersteins concept by stressing that labour exploitation did occur among the peripheries/ semi peripheries mainly b ecause of the uneven development between them. RESEARCH QUESTIONS The research questions ask as follows: Does International Law discriminate against international mobility of migrant labour? Is Indonesian migrant labour being the subject of exploitation in Malaysia, and if it is true, in what sense are they being exploited? What is the push and pull factors shaping Indonesian migrant labour exploitation in Malaysia? What are the remedies taken or proposed? OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objectives of this study is as below: To analyse the wallersteins theory of labour exploitation in the current context. To determine whether Indonesian migrant labour in Malaysia being exploited or not. To analyse the push and pull factors that persuade Indonesian migrant labour seeking job in Malaysia. To suggest solutions and options to overcome the labour exploitation in Malaysia. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This paper will precisely illustrate the difficulties that are being faced by the migrant labour according to the World System theory and specifically on the Indonesian migrant labour in Malaysia. Thus, the problem of what faced by the immigrant labour is not of a small scale, but are in a big and complex proportion. they all are facing a large problem that we should consider. The migrant labour are largely been exploited in many ways by capitalists. Therefore, this paper is trying to look into this matter more sharply and take into consideration on the exploitation among Indonesian migrant labour in Malaysia that shaped by the push and the pull factors causing the uneven development between the semi periphery that is Malaysia and the periphery that is Indonesia. So, this project paper tends to deepen the World System theory by putting a point that there is an uneven development going on between Malaysia and Indonesia that really shape the exploitation among the migrant labour from I ndonesia. SCOPE OF THE STUDY The world can be perceived as a core and periphery dichotomy where core countries are characterized by high levels of development, a capacity at innovation and a merging of trade flows. The core has a level of dominance over the periphery which is reflected to flow of migrant labour to other countries. In a simple way, it is obvious that international relations are shaped by global inequality that is under the sphere of world system theory, core-periphery, and dependency theory. In specify, this paper will touch on the capitalist exploitation on migrant labour especially on the matter of Indonesian migrant labour in Malaysia. This paper also will touch on the different level of capitalist dependency between Indonesia and Malaysia that caused the dependency between the semi-periphery and periphery country that contribute to the flow of Indonesian migrant labour to Malaysia and how are being exploited mainly because of the uneven development and capitalist system. LITERATURE REWIEW There are few writers that have significantly pointed out their views on migrant labour on being a subject of exploitation in the current context. In Marxian political economy, exploitation refers to class exploitation, meaning to say the producer exploit the proletariat with low wages well below the actual amount of work done. The proletarian is forced to sell his or her labour power cheaping in order to survive. While the capitalist exploits the work performed by the proletarian by accumulating the surplus value of their labour. Therefore, the capitalist makes a living out of owning of the means of production and generating a big profit, which is really the product of the labour, the actual producers. Refer to the www.answers.com) Sarah H. Paoletti. (2009), have pointed out that migrant labour can be found labouring in all industries and all socioeconomic levels across the world. But it is migrant workers both with lawful status and without-who are engaged in low wage employment defined in the international dialogue by 3 Ds dirty, dangerous, and degrading. The writer has critically stated that there is a vast amount of exploitation among the migrant labour which are specifically from low skilled or unskilled jobs. In addition, the writer has taken the human rights perspectives. In other perspective, Bach. R. L.,and Schraml. L.A. (1982), have stressed that the push and the pull factors are in a matter of fact shaping the labour exploitation. In this case, it is true that immigration results from push and pulls factors. It is tend to be said that the pushers can be famine, hurricanes, civil war, lack of jobs and drought meanwhile the pullers may be social stability, economic strength or real job possibilities.In this case, Bach and Schramltend to say that the migrations among people especially labour are being subjected by the push and the pull factors. Generally these scholars tend to agree that labour exploitation really takes place because of the push and pull factors.Meanwhile, Castles and Kosack (1973) advocate a Marxist interpretation of race relations, which arise essentially from the way in which the richer European nations have dominated and exploited poorer nations. It is useful to capitalism to have a reserve army of labour. Furthermore, migration favours the host country. The migrants are young, strong and healthy and have had their upbringing at the expense of their parent country. Thus, the host country has not had to pay for this. They regard migration as a form of development aid for the migration countries that acquires labour with little cost. Besides, Claudia von Werlhof (2007), a well-known Professor of Women ´s Studies at the Institute for Political Science, Department of Political Science and Sociology, University of Innsbruck, have put into consideration the woman question was addressed as a part of the wider social and ecological context. Generally, she intent was to explain how these phenomena could exist in the midst of alleged peace and democracy, which is a capitalist regime of wage labour, and allegedly ever increasing standards of living within industrialized nations what passes for western civilization. However, a look beyond the confines of the so-called First World expanded the question further on how was it possible that, despite its incorporation underprogress and development, the so-called Third World remained characterized by underdevelopment and a lack of skilled labour. Borjas (1999) has introduced the notion of a global migration market, where individuals nationally calculate the relative benefits of staying put as opposed to moving to one or another foreign destination. People migrate to places where the expected net returns over a given time period are greatest. But in this matter of fact, immigrant labour that goes to other countries have going through exploitation mainly because of the capitalist that conquer the labour. It is true that dependency have cost a lot of implication to the immigrant labour because the unbalanced and different level of dependency among core and periphery have definitely cause a nation state to send their labour to another countries. Borjasalso describes a more modern version and extension of the economic equilibrium approach to migration. He also shows that the self-selection of migrants on the basic of the unobserved abilities depends entirely on the extent of income inequality in the host and the source country. Us ually international migration is rarely a free movement of people across borders, but usually strongly influenced by various physical and non-physical barriers. A prominent scholar Samir Amin(1990) observed that workers at the periphery are been super-exploited because the differential of wages and incomes from non-wage labour in general is much higher than the differential of productivities and in which productivity increases that take place in developed nations are passed on to their workers in the form of higher wages and income, while most or all of the productivity increases that take place in developing nations are reflected in lower prices. In another perspective, B.N. Ghosh (2007), expressed that exploitation contributes to the generation of inequalities, and inequalities in many cases are responsible for exploitation. Ghoshs view is sufficiently been revealed from the view of Mahatma Gandhi and he also strongly believed that capitalist development accentuates inequalities that lastly created the exploitation among people especially the labours. According to Ghosh from the political economy perspective, exploitation implies taking ad vantage of some people or situation to serve selfish interests without corresponding compensation to the exploited party. Thus, in this matter, his view is really on the point that the capitalist really exploited the labours especially on what is going through by Indonesian immigrant labour in Malaysia that is being exploited by the capitalist and because of the uneven development. It is interesting to read the article of Thomas P. Rohlen (2002), on Cosmopolitan Cities and Nation States: Open Economics, Urban Dynamics, and Government in East Asia, have sufficiently explained that global capitalism in the new world system is shaping the urban agenda that he had mainly focused in East Asia countries such as Taipei, Japan, and Korea. In this article also, Thomas had explained that how a city which unable or unwilling to comply with the expectations and the standards of international capitalism are precisely look to be in a state of disadvantage. Its seems that capitalism in the world system did significantly became a force to give instruction to other states and this could bring about the stage of exploitation mai

The Return of Martin Guerre

The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the book â€Å"The Return of Martin Guerre† by Natalie Zamon Davis. Specifically, it will discuss the life of the peasant during the Middle Ages. This book is a fascinating account of a true case that happened during the 16th century in France. The book is also an excellent example of how the peasants lived in the Middle Ages, from what they ate, to how they traveled and what their family lives were like. This book shows that life in the Middle Ages was difficult and demanding, but it seems a little bit peaceful and serene, too. The main occupations were farming and raising sheep or goats, and there were tradesman in the villages who worked for a living, such as a shoemaker, a blacksmith, and such. Martin Guerre and his family were tile makers, but they also farmed and raised sheep to become relatively prosperous in their small village (Davis 14). The peasants were uneducated, (the Guerre's town did not even have a schoolmaster), and most could not read, and could only write a small amount (Davis 15). They also married their children off very young, and often made matches for them. Martin Guerre married when he was only fourteen, and his wife was even younger (Davis 16). Life revolved around the village, the church, and the family, and it was a very busy but seemingly contented lifestyle. Their main concerns were the family and simple survival. Everything they did was to feed and clothe the family, from raising grains and grapes to raising sheep so they could spin the wool into cloth and clothe the family members. When they became more successful, it was to make money and rise up in stature in the village community, but peasants who did not have trades worked the land for their own survival. They were also extremely close-knit families, often living nearby each other, so family was important for them, as well. They worked together as a family, and widows lived with one of the grown sons, creating an extended family unit. Family relationships were important in this society, and they were the source of land and dowries for the children, which were very important at the time. In the Basque country, families often lived together, as the author notes, â€Å"When a household is set up with two generations of married folk, it is not the Basque combination of the old heir and the young heir, but a widowed parent, usually the mother, with one of her married children† (Davis 11). Even when Martin's uncle married, he moved nearby to another house, and lived close to his relatives. Martin returned with his bride to his father's house after they married, and lived with his family under one roof (Davis 18). Since their main concern was survival and perpetuation of the family, this indicates how important family life was to the peasants. Women had a lesser position than men did in the society. Davis writes, â€Å"At the parish mass, she would have to get used to the fact that her women did not push ahead of the men to make their offerings, did not go about the church to collect for the vestry, and din not serve as sacristans† (Davis 15). Women were also blamed for a man's impotence, as Davis notes. She writes, â€Å"In the sixteenth century, it was usually blamed on the power of a woman outside the marriage† (Davis 21). The fact that Martin abandoned his wife and newborn son after eight years of marriage shows what low status women had in society. She had no recourse, she lived in a foreign household, and she could not even remarry. Girls were not educated; instead, they learned â€Å"women's work† like spinning and cooking, and they were always at the mercy of their husbands. Davis writes, â€Å"First a world where organizational structure and public identity were associated exclusively with males† (Davis 29). The women worked in the fields, helped raise the livestock, served as midwives, cooked and baked. They were essential to everyday life in the peasant world, but they held no rights or privileges. The only women that really rose up in society were the widows, who could earn the respect of others and wield â€Å"informal power† (Davis 31). Armand Du Tilh was able to get away with his deception for several reasons. First, he resembled Guerre enough that people mistook him for the missing man (Davis 39). Next, he learned all he could about the missing man so that he could fool Martin's family into believing he was actually Guerre. Davis writes, â€Å"He informed himself as cunningly as he could about Martin Guerre, his situation, his family, and the things he used to say and do† (Davis 39). He also grew a beard to hide any differences in his face, and took great pains to learn the villagers' names and how he interacted with them when he had lived in the village before. In short, he learned every detail about Martin Guerre's life, and convinced people he was Martin because of all the details he seemed to â€Å"recall† about his prior life. Davis believes that he was accepted because people wanted him to come back for all those years, and that he came â€Å"announced† as Martin Guerre, and so people wanted to believe it was true (Davis 43). Most of all, Bertrande's acceptance of the new Martin helped soothe the minds of others. It is easy to see why Bertrande would accept the imposter. Davis writes, â€Å"What Bertrande had with the new Martin was her dream come true, a man she could live in peace and friendship (to cite sixteenth-century values) and in passion† (Davis 44). They also seemed to have become very attached to each other in their new life together. In conclusion, this book is a fascinating story of deception and betrayal, but it is a fascinating glimpse into the everyday life of the sixteenth-century peasant, as well. The book shows how families lived, survived, and even thrived, how women were treated in society, how important the Church was to so many aspects of life, and how difficult life was for many peasants. It is a good book to read to learn the more intimate details of life in the Middle Ages. The Return of Martin Guerre The film The Return of Martin Guerre is based on a true story about a young man, Martin Guerre, during the mid-16th century. It takes place in a small peasant town, Artigat, located in southwestern France. Martin is married off at a young age but is unhappy with his life. He decides to abandon his family and join the army. After several years gone, he finally returns to the village. The village is ecstatic of his return, especially his wife Bertrande. However after a disagreement with his uncle over land, the village begins to question whether his is truly Martin Guerre. Their skepticism proves to be accurate when finally the real Martin Guerre returns. The fake Martin, known as â€Å"Pansette† is then executed for his crime. This film illustrates the concerns and lives of the people in 16th century France, through the interplay of social, religious and political institutions. In the film, we see marriage being treated as a social matter, rather than a religious matter. During the 16th century, marriage began to be treated as secular, instead of a sacrament. Because of this parents’ control over whom their children married began to increase (Western Civilizations, 357). At a young age, Martin’s family married him off to Bertrande de Rols. Bertrande belonged to a well-off peasant family. Bertrande was chosen by Martin’s family based on what her family could offer to Martin. Her dowry included a bed, linen sheets, wool and a vineyard, among other items of value. Because marriage involved the inheritance of property, most believed it was too important of a matter to be left in the hands of the children (357). Once Martin’s father passed, Martin would inherit his family’s land. During the 16th century was the father’s role to instruct and discipline his household, while the woman was to tend to and show obedience to her husband, and also to bear children (Western Civilizations, 357). After the marriage, Bertrande moved in with Martin and his family. Martin worked underneath his father and learned from him. However soon into the marriage, it was discovered that Martin could not consummate his marriage and therefore the family did not have children. In the film, we see how infertility was dealt with socially and religiously during this time. The village poked fun at Martin’s infertility during a festival. During the 16th century, festivals served a social function. Usually they were used for celebration and demonstration of solidarity. However, like in this case, festivals were used as competition between classes and were incredibly violent (Wahl, â€Å"Festivals† notes). During a Candlemas festival, a â€Å"symbolic castration† took place. Martin was dressed up as a bear. The villagers pretended to hunt him and cut off what symbolized his genitals. Bertrande claimed that he had been put under a spell and a Catholic exorcism is performed. Both Martin and Bertrande are tied to a post naked, while the Priest performs rituals. After this, Bertrande becomes pregnant with their son, Sanxi. Though his infertility was reversed and his son was born, Martin was unhappy with his life. He did not like farming and kept to himself. After an argument with his father over stolen grain, Martin leaves during the night and does not return for several years. During this time, Martin’s father passes. In the 16th century, when a father dies the estate is given to the eldest son. In this case, it was Martin. However, because Martin is not around, Martin’s uncle takes control of the Guerre’s estate. In order to keep the estate within both families, Bertrande’s mother marries Martin’s uncle. Throughout Martin’s absence, Bertrande remains married to him. Because there was no proof that Martin was dead, Bertrande was not considered a widow and therefore could not remarry. It was also not common for the Catholic Church to annul a marriage, unless it could be proven that either party had not freely consented to the marriage (Western Civilizations, 357). During the 16th century, a person’s identity was based on his or her actions rather than appearance. For this reason, the fake Martin Guerre, Pansette, was able to convince the village that he was the real Martin. No formal records or pictures were kept of people at this time. The people of the village relied on the memory of Martin. With Pansette’s slight resemblance to Martin and his vast knowledge of Martin’s life, he was able to fool everyone. Pansette tells stories of the places he visited. Specifically he spoke of the men he saw from Brazil. He describes the men as naked and in chains with feathers on their heads. Pansette tells them that they eat their prisoners’ hearts, and share their land and women. He also told them that women make the decisions and go to war for the men. Bertrande seems shocked by this and asks if they are human or if they have souls. This is significant because it demonstrates the power of men at this time. In the 16th century, men made the decisions, while woman were expected to obey their husbands. Therefore it was strange for them to hear of woman having power over the men. After a dispute over the land between the fake Martin and his uncle, his uncle begins to question whether he is the real Martin. Rumors go around about this and the village is split on this issue. With this issue, we see how it is dealt with through religion and politics. The Toulouse Parliament of France is put in charge of this matter and questions Bertrande. She stands by Pansette, claiming he is the true Martin Guerre, although she knows that he is not. From a religious point of view, by doing this she is living in mortal sin and damning her soul and politically, she can be hanged for this crime. This case is brought before a court. Those who testified claimed that Pansette was not an imposter, until a man walks in claiming to be the real Martin Guerre. Martin’s family, including Bertrande, admits that this man is, in fact, the real Martin. Pansette finally confesses that he is not Martin and learned everything he knew about him through Martin himself. Although Pansette is found guilty, the court frees Bertrande from prosecution as a collaborator. This is because the court holds the real Martin Guerre to be partially responsible for not acting as a true husband. This issue is considered so serious because it is an issue of property. By pretending to be another man, Pansette is taking another man’s wife and stealing his wealth. During the 16th century, crimes against property, such as theft and arson, were punishable by execution (Wahl, â€Å"Counter Reformation† Lecture). The story of Martin Guerre and his return demonstrate the concerns and lives of people in 16th century France, through social, religious and political institutions. Socially, we see the act of marriage as a secular matter, ather than a religious one, where wht dowry a woman can offer determines if she is fit to be a wife. Also, we see the issue of identity and individuality based upon knowledge and actions, rather than appearance. It can be argued that during this time people know each other better than today. To decide if Pansette was the real Martin, they based their decision around how he acted and what he remembered about life before he left (although Mart in’s family was fooled by the fake Martin), while today identity is based a lot more on just appearance. We see how religion plays a role in their actions. They believed to fix Martin’s problem of infertility, they must perform an exorcism to get the demon out of him. Also, we see how by believing the fake Martin, Bertrande is living in sin under God. Finally, politically we see just how serious Pansette’s crime was. By interfering with the real Martin’s property (his family and land), he is committing the ultimate crime and is executed for this.

Ethics Of The Workplace Business Application - 941 Words

Ethics in the Workplace: Business Application Ethics is not a subject that is lost in history with the likes of Aristotle, Plato or Machiavelli, but is relevant in with more modern philosophers such as John Mill, Ayan Rand and Immanuel Kant. Business and higher education centers find ethics relevant enough to hold classes, seminars and pay experts to host on-site training sessions that focus on the relationship between business and ethics. The two subjects are inseparable and even more important with the speed and widespread availability of news. Three common theories of ethics are utilitarianism, egoism, and care ethics each of which have their positive and negative points. Utilitarianism can be loosely traced back to the Greek†¦show more content†¦While helping others is not a direct consideration of this theory, one of the consequences is that by harming others it may harm you as well. At the end of the day, ones well-being and self-preservation is a primal survival insti nct and generally easy to choose. A problem with egoism is that it can seem arbitrary. One could decide to give an advantage to people with green eyes. This could seem arbitrary as eye color has little to no bearing on ability, morality, or character. This simple answer to this is that the person who made the decision has green eyes and would therefore benefit from the decision. There are other theories that do not necessarily depend on the consequences of the action, but on the motives. Deontology as made popular by Kant argues that â€Å"†¦ standard of rationality that he dubbed the â€Å"Categorical Imperative† (CI). Kant characterized the CI as an objective, rationally necessary and unconditional principle that we must always follow †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Johnson and Cureton (2004). One of the major advantages of deontology is that it fits with a common sense of what is right or wrong even within most societies when it comes to the most egregious activities such as torture and murder. An individual’s duty or what they ought to do seems simple in most classes, at least on the surface. What happens when conflicting moral duties arise? For example, is it acceptable to break a promise or tell a lie? It seems that eitherShow MoreRelatedEssay on Managing the Workplace Ethics of Social Media1474 Words   |  6 PagesSocial media applications on the internet have skyrocketed in the area of interests for all ages of employees in the work force. As fast as the se applications are gaining popularity, so are they changing the way employers are looking at their employees and their companies in general. 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During The 1950S Racism And Prejudice Was High And As A

During the 1950s racism and prejudice was high and as a result many significant role models during the time were not represented in history. Because the United States was segregated during the Space Race â€Å"colored† people were not praised by America. They were neglected and overlooked. Overall there were people who helped in the Space Race that were congratulated and praised. They were viewed as the greatest scientist, engineers, and geniuses during the 1950s. But equal representation in praise between Whites and African-American individuals was not made. The United States did not carry on the rich history that African-Americans impacted during the Space Race. Also during that time society choose who to praise no matter how big or small†¦show more content†¦All things considered the astronauts were potentially endangering themselves if they were picked to spice off to space. The scientist, engineers, and mathematicians were only sending them off with the hopeful e xpectations of their inventions succeeding. Therefore, it’s not a wonder why society clung to the image of astronauts as heroes. Hidden Figures follows the story of three very talented African-American women. Dorothy Vaughan, Mary Jackson, and Katherine G. Johnson represent a group of women that weren’t accurately represented in history. Many people believed that a woman couldn’t be part of such an important part of history. Margot Lee Shetterly describes a discovery she happened upon. There she describes how in 1990 Virginia Biggins who worked at Langley beat for the Daily Press newspaper stated that â€Å"‘Everyone said, ‘this is a scientist, this is an engineer’ and it was always a man’† (xvi). Virginia Biggins according to Margot Lee Shetterly then continues to say, â€Å"‘I just assumed they were all secretaries’†, when talking about the women during the Space Race (xvi). Furthermore, the idea that women can’t be mathematicians, engineers, or scientist seems to still exist today. According to David W. Stinson, â€Å"Nonetheless, in the United States, andShow MoreRelatedImmigration Is A Current And Contemporary Issue948 Words   |  4 Pagesracial differences. This belief that there is a natural order reflected in race persisted and was promoted in many scientific fields from 1850 – 1910, during which slavery, imperialism and colonialism created the ideal breeding ground for these beliefs. 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Each character represents an aspect of Australian society in the 1950 s that Beynon perceives to be true. 1st published in 1960. Set in 1956. NUTSHELL- 1. Not accepting of other cultures; Abuse against Gino and failed assimilation halfway between identities. Cultural heritage is important in establishing identity

Cyber Security Policies and Defense Contractors Essay

Abstract Cyber security policies in the private sector have been a challenging issue for major defense contractors, especially after recent attacks. As a result, the U.S. increased its strict enforcement against these companies by justifying its intervention to improve cyber security. The government would like to impose standards for companies who lack the proper protocol. Due to the revised and new procedures, corporations are responding by rejecting any congressional intervention. This has caused major friction in the relationship between the government and industry. The executive, judicial and legislative branch believes its responsibility is to provide cyber security capabilities to protect all information at contractor facilities.†¦show more content†¦On May 31, 2011, Lockheed Martin suffered a massive cyber attack. Hackers were able to exploit systems, hardware and keys to gain vital information associated with the company and programs for the U.S. government. Similarly, Booz Allen military emails were hacked by a group called LulzSec, which claimed to be associated with Anonymous. According to Washington Technology, the group copied thousands of emails, passwords and distributed them throughout the internet. Although defense contractors disagree, the government is still trying to justify ways to set up and improve their cyber security. This document will give an assessment of why the government chooses to justify telling private industries how to manage or upgrade their cyber security through various reasons, motivations and arguments. In addition, this evaluation will give methods and real world examples to support their justification. Lastly, this review will explain the impacts/effects on the national security due to government regulation with real-world illustrations to support their position. Body The government is giving socio-political reasons to justify their involvement to improve industry cyber security. 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In 2009, it was estimated RSA had â€Å"about 40 million tokens and 250 million mobile software versions deployed in over 25,000 organizations†Read MoreThe Future For National Security1496 Words   |  6 Pages As the world moves forward, there are new threats that arise and it is difficult to handle each one. One of the largest threats to any country are cyber-attacks/computer hacking. Each day on the news there is a developing story about a country’s data base being hacked by an anonymous source and all the classified files were exposed to the public. As a result, cybersecurity has increased significantly in the countries that can afford it. The United States and China have recently increased spendingRead MoreAnalysis Of Dod Contracts1000 Words   |  4 Pages Microsoft Visio, Microsoft Project, and Adobe Reader. Department of Defense (DoD) is a federal agency which deals with the national security and military. The security policies that are set up should be followed by not only DoD but also the organization who work with and contractual services provided to them. The information shared is naturally highly sensitive, so we should implement proper steps in maintaining security over the contracts. DOD-specific requirements for an organization’s ITRead MoreSocial Media Effects On The Military1486 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"On 25 February 2010, US Deputy Secretary of Defense William J. Lynn III issued the first directive-type memorandum (DTM) on the ‘Responsible and Effective Use of Internet Capabilities,’ and within months, service members had access to SNSs on their computers at work† (Waldvogel, 2017, p. 119). Social media has positive and negative effects on the military. The negative effects, not only affect the individual or the military, but also the national security of the country. Social media poses threatsRead MoreSecurity Firm Symantec : An Evolving National Strategy984 Words   |  4 PagesUnfortunately, with the rise of interests and increasing in exports it was only a matter of time before the industry of aerospace, defense, and security was going to experience cybersecurity threats. In this industry, vulnerabilities such as compromised Personally Identifiable Information (PII), Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks on the critical infrastructure to attacks such as economic espionage exist. â€Å"Agencies and companies are facing significant and ongoing cybersecurity and safetyRead MoreManaging Information Security Risk Of A Cyber Attack804 Words   |  4 PagesNext, AAE will use the NIST SP 800-39: Managing Information Security Risk to generate a response for each risk. Note that three of the risks are global risks; the data breach, terrorist, and rising fuel prices risks all stem from AAE’s global marketplace activities. 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EFFECTIVE CYBERSECURITYRead MoreChina s Cyber Attacks Against Us Military2251 Words   |  10 PagesChina’s Cyber Attacks Against US Military Associated Private Firms Introduction: Based on current sources available, we have medium confidence that China will continue to conduct cyber espionage against United States defenses and military systems. It is not a new development as China’s People’s Liberation Army (PLA) cyber team has been behind many attacks against US defense firms and military systems as early as 2007. The KIQ for this assessment is: How vulnerable our Military and Defense sectorsRead MoreThe Dangers Of The Global Financial Institutions1341 Words   |  6 Pagesfinancial institution are penetrated by the third party, the results may be catastrophic. Another good illustrations include 2007 hack of the TJX Companies, Inc. (over 95 m user accounts were compromised), 2011 cyber assault of the Sony Corporation (over 77 m user accounts were compromised), 2008 cyber assault on the Bank of New York (over 12 m user accounts were compromised) and several other notable incidents (Chwan, 2013). Not only the companies incur heavy financial losse s as a result of data theftRead MoreCyber Security : The Threat Of The Digital Age1811 Words   |  8 PagesSome of the potentially greatest threats to our national security revolve around that of a computer network. These networks are vulnerable to human error, negligence, and internal sabotages. In the years of 2014 and 2015 the United States Intelligence Community’s threat assessment placed cyber security as the top priority. External attacks on computer mainframes and data networks that contain critical intelligence are being recognized as the nation’s most vulnerable weakness and steps must be taken

How to Teach Language Through Poetry Free Essays

The use of literature in the EFL classroom through three different perspectives. Exploring poetry as a strong option.. We will write a custom essay sample on How to Teach Language Through Poetry or any similar topic only for you Order Now Most of the time literature is mainly related to reading and writing, but it may play the same meaningful role in teaching speaking and listening if we design creative activities. Teachers can use literature in the classroom for different purposes such as reading aloud and dramatizing a poem, teaching pronunciation, and many other activities. There are many advantages of using literature in the EFL classroom. To talk about the general advantages of literature can be a broad approach thus; we will not focus on them. Instead, we will have a look at the benefits from three different perspectives: literature as genuine and authentic material, as a good language source and as a bridge to get the learner interested and also, we will mention poetry as a strong option to develop students’ skills. MATERIAL Literature is authentic material that makes students travel to foreign countries and fantastic worlds. This keeps our students motivated and promotes favorable attitude toward learning. Poems, novels, and stories can bring powerful emotional responses to the classroom. Furthermore, students can relate their own real lives to the stories they read. Literary texts help EFL students to improve language learning. However, literature by itself is not enough; teachers need to use imaginative techniques for integrating literature work with language teaching. It is also necessary to bring motivating methodology and to choose the right material to keep students interested. LANGUAGE Language is the most prominent feature of literature. Through literature students learn about syntax and discourse, different structures, functions, and the different ways of connecting ideas, all these help students to develop their writing, listening, reading and speaking skills. As they use literature they learn about language structure without even noticing, this helps to develop their communicative competence, what as we know, is the ultimate aim of English learning. LEARNER In the classroom the use of literature encourages learners to get involved ith the stories they read or hear; the understanding of the words becomes less important as they get involved in trying to figure out what is happening with a character or the end of a story. Students may also like using literature if the activities are oriented towards enjoyment and creativity instead of memorizing or following grammatical rules. Literature can be seen as the bridge between the learner and the culture of the people whose language they are studying; in order to get the l earners interested in the culture, we have to carefully select the literary texts according to their interests and level of comprehension. WHY DO WE USE POETRY WITH THE LANGUAGE LEARNER? Poetry is a short piece of imaginative writing, of a personal nature and laid out in lines. In this sense, poetry is a product of the language and a tool to teach it, a tool to teach grammatical clues and a product when students make a composition of any topic. Most of the poems include metaphors. Students can use cognitive skills by making comparisons between two different things and finding their similarities. The figures of speech used in poetry such as metaphors, similes and personifications help students to have a better understanding of the use of language in an unconscious way. Poetry is a way for teaching and learning basic skills. It can be used as an enjoyable and a rewarding tool with the properties of rhyming and rhythm. It helps students to easily learn with the supra-segmental aspect of the target language, such as stress, pitch, intonation. Using poetry while teaching English can have many benefits: * It encourages creative writing. * It helps students appreciate sounds words and patterns. * It develops phonic skills. * It makes students express feelings and opinions. * It provides a great opportunity to play with language. It reinforces the ability to think and to experiment with students’ understanding of the world. * It helps to acquire vocabulary, creativity and imagination. * it reveals, restates, reinforces and affirms those things which we think are true. * It gives the chance to discover and explore the use of the language. * It generates collaborative activities (pair and group work). Poetry and the four skills We can develop the fou r skills while using poetry: Poems are good to reinforce grammar structures and to improve writing abilities, bringing out creativity and rhythm in the classroom since students have to use their imagination to write. Also, poems help to develop oral and mental capacities. They should be read aloud to reinforce the student’s phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, and vocabulary as well as to sharpen their receptive language skills by learning rhyming, sounds, stresses, pauses, alliteration and syllables. Ideas for using poetry in the classroom * Discussing the theme of a poem and writing out personal experiences related to the theme. * Deducing meanings from the context. * Completing a paraphrase of a poem (cloze-style). * Choosing the best paraphrase among a few. Predicting what’s coming next after reading only one verse at a time. * Ordering jumbled stanzas or lines in the correct sequence. * Rewriting a part of a poem in one’s own words and ideas to offer different messages. * Filling an omitted word, phrase, or line in relation to its context. * Discussing similarities and differences between poems of the same subject or theme. * Identifying any aural or musical qualities i n the poem (rhyme, alliteration, and simile). * Reading aloud poems (choral reading) and making a song. This teaches intonations and stress. Using visuals images such as paintings to help pupils envisage settings, historical periods, etc. * Imitating o parody the style of poem. * Acting the poem: mime, role play, performance, etc. * Making a peer or group composition, writing together. Useful Web sites www. readwritethink. org/lessons/lesson_view. asp? id=391 www. poetryteachers. comh www. poetry4kids. com www. poetryzone. co. uk www. michellehenry. fr/poems. htm www. poemhunter. com www. tooter4kids. com/classroom/poetry_in_the_esl_classroom. htm www. teachingenglish. org. uk/think/literature/poems_prod. html http://www. youtube. com/user/b4uguy#g/u Conclusions Using poetry in the classroom is a great tool, but we cannot forget that we have to choose the right material, so students can maximize their learning. It has to be interesting and adequate for each student level, reading ab out new things is usually interesting for students. Learners will benefit from literature; we are responsible of putting in touch our students with material that catches their interest, so they want to read and listen more, which turns out in further and richer learning. Also, it can create opportunities for personal expression as well as reinforce learner? s knowledge of lexical and grammatical structure giving the opportunity to develop their communicative and cognitive skills. Many teachers think that including poetry in the EFL classroom can be a very heavy and useless work. However, we have analyzed some of the benefits that working with poetry can bring to the learning process. Also, we pointed that not only it is useful but also, students can have great fun if we choose the correct activities and poems. How to cite How to Teach Language Through Poetry, Essay examples

james Essay Example For Students

james Essay Throughout the Middle Ages literacy rates were extremely low in Europe, and hand copied manuscripts were expensive. The Bible and many legal documents were written in Latin or Greek, which were becoming increasingly dead languages used only by the church. Moreover, the statute of Valencia and other statutes had made it illegal for anyone not authorized by the Church to have even the Latin and Greek versions of the of the Bible. The laity therefore had to rely on the Church, government and powers that be for understanding and interpreting these documents. With the invention of the printing press, one of the first books to be printed was the bible, which was soon translated into several languages, often badly. The errors were due in part to ignorance and in part by attempts to use the Bible to further sectarian political or theological goals. A few small parts of the Bible had been translated into vernacular at different times. King Alfred translated the ten commandments, and Bede had translated the gospel of St John into Saxon language, but the translation was lost. In the fourteenth century. Wyclif had translated parts of the Bible and this work was completed after his death. Many copies of this Lollard bible in middle English were distributed before the invention of printing. The Genesis narrative opened: ?In the firste made God of nougt heuene and erthe. The erthe forsothe was veyn with ynne and void, and derknessis weren vpon the face of the see; and the Spiryt of God was born vpon the watrys. And God seide, Be maad ligt; and maad is ligt.?The Wyclif (or Wycliffe) bible was completed in 1388, four years after Wycliffes death. Wycliffe himself had translated the New Testament , relegating the Old Testament translations to assistants with the necessary language skills. These Wycliffe bibles were laboriously copied out and distributed at great risk. The Catholic Church was horrified at the possibility that everyone would be able to read the Bible. In 1399, alarmed at the spread of Lollardy, the convocation of Oxford passed the statute De Heretico Comburendum, Of the burning of heretics. This law was passed in Parliament by King Henry IV in 1401. It provided for burning of all those who held Lollard opinions, or possessed illegal books, including the translated Bible apparently, though it is a common misconception that it was directed only against the Bible. The De Heretico Comburendo statute stated: that nonepresume to preach openly or privily, without the license of the diocesan of the same place first required and obtained, curates in their own churches and persons hitherto privileged, and other of the Canon Law granted, only except; nor that none from henceforth anything preach, hold, teach, or instruct openly or privily, or make or write any book contrary to the catholic faith or determination of the Holy Church, nor of such sect and wicked doctrines and opinions shall make any conventicles, or in any wise hold or exercise schools; and also that none from henceforth in any wise favor such preacher or maker of any such and like conventicles, or persons holding or exercising schools, or making or writing such books, or so teaching, informing, or exciting the people, nor any of them maintain or in any wise sustain, and that all and singular having such books or any writings of such wicked doctrine and opinions, shall really with effect deliver or cause to be de livered all such books and writings to the diocesan of the same place within forty days from the time of the proclamation of this ordinance and statute. The Lollards did not believe that the wine and wafer of the communion were transsubstantiated into the blood and body of Jesus, they refused to worship the cross as an object, and held many other such dangerous doctrines in addition to translating the Bible. The first person to be executed under the law was Sir William Sautre, who refused to abjure, among other heresies, the following: 1. he will not worship the cross on which Christ suffered, but only Christ that suffered upon the cross. 2. he would sooner worship a temporal king, than the aforesaid wooden cross. 3. he would rather worship the bodies of the saints, than the very cross of Christ on which he hung, if it were before him. 4. he would rather worship a man truly contrite, than the cross of Christ. 5. he is bound rather to worship a man that is predestinate, than an angel of God. 6. if any man would visit the monuments of Peter and Paul, or go on pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas, or any whither else, to obtain any temporal benefit; he is not bound to keep his vow, but he may distribute the expenses of his vow upon the alms of the poor. 7. every priest and deacon is more bound to preach the word of God, than to say the canonical hours. Wyclif himself had been executed in 1388. The Catholic authorities later desecrated his grave. While the new statute was not exclusively aimed at translated bibles, it was used to suppress them. Quite a few of these bibles, used by Lollard preachers, nevertheless remained. In the 1490?s the personal physician to King Henry the VII and VIII, Thomas Linacre, an Oxford professor, studied Greek. After reading the Gospels in the original Greek, and comparing it to the Latin Vulgate, he wrote in his diary, ?Either this (the original Greek) is not the Gospel? or we are not Christians.? In the same period, John Colet, another Oxford professor, translated the New Testament into English for his students, and later it was read for the public at Saint Paul?s Cathedral in London. He escaped prosecution owing to his friends in high places. Presently, the vernacular Bible became a political weapon against temporal rulers too, because it could be used to show that the claims of kings to divine right were a fiction. William Tyndale was the main translator of the English Bible, in the early sixteenth century. He did not use Wyclifs version, but started anew. Wyclif had written in Middle English, which was rapidly being transformed. Printing was standardizing and alterin g spelling. Wyclif had translated the Latin Vulgate. Tyndale knew Hebrew and Greek, and translated from the original. The Tyndale bibles were printed in Europe and smuggled into Britain. There, they were bought up eagerly by the Lord Bishop of London, to prevent their distribution. In this way, the church subsidized the work of Tyndale and it prospered. Tyndale boasted to learned Catholics:I wyl cause a boy that driveth ye plough shall know more of scripture than thou doest. This idea was surely terrifying both for churchmen and for the crown, for the notes in many editions of these bibles, published by Calvinists, repudiated the divine right of kings. The work was continued after his death. Based on these translations, Miles Coverdale printed the first complete Bible in English in 1535. John Rogers published a revision called Matthews Bible in 1537. A revision of the Matthews Bible, printed in 1539, was known as The Great Bible. A later revision reflected the participation of eight Anglican Bishops and was called The Bishops Bible. It was printed in 1568. The frontispiece of this bible is shown at right.